This is usually used when the client is more tense or eager to come out with his inner feelings. This technique may be used in certain unpleasant situations which might have arisen in between the interviews.
Ventilation is not only therapeutic but also diagnostic. The therapist should explore intently and stimulate the client, by questioning or commenting, to tell more about his situation and its various aspects. Only towards the end of session, the caseworker may use generalisation and logical discussion to lessen his guilt. In the initial stages one should not minimise the anxiety lest he stops coming out with relevant materials necessary to help him.
The caseworker may choose either to be totally passive or actively participating and directing. The client must feel that the worker is uncritical, tolerant and is listening to him. One should not permit ventilation when it is used as a defense mechanism to avoid further exploration. In such situations, it is better to divert his attention and help him to discuss the relevant matters concerning his problem.
It should be avoided or used with caution in case of psychotics etc. Ventilation is used sometimes by the client to seek attention and sympathy from the worker or a gratification from talking freely about self. The caseworker should be conscious in all such situations and direct the interviews accordingly. As stated earlier, the psycho-social therapy views man in his situation and tries to understand the total man, i.
The procedure for reflective discussion, according to Hollis , does not involve use of clarification or interpretation utilised for developing insight.
She has classified the procedure for discussion of current person- situation configuration into four sub-categories:. The procedure in this sub-category deals partly with perception and partly with the question of knowledge. Some of the clients see either distorted or only one-sided picture of the real situation around them. The feelings may also blot out important aspects of the reality.
The worker may, in such situations, draws the attention of the client to the real facts of the situation which may in many cases correct his distorted perception of the situation. If this procedure does not work, the client may be helped to perceive the discrepancies between reality and his views of it, without going into the dynamics of his perceiving reality into a distorted way. When we are angry with our friend or relative, we see his negative points only and interpret his good behaviour also from a negative angle only.
His help is interpreted as motivated by selfish ends etc. In some situations the client may be hostile to others just because he is unable to imagine their feelings in the situation, or because of his failure to identify with the feelings of the person. A husband may not appreciate the difficulties of a university educated housewife, unable to manage household affairs effectively, simply because he fails to imagine the possible responses and feelings of such a housewife in such a situation.
Similarly, a wife failing to appreciate the tiredness of her husband after he returns home from his work, may start murmuring the moment he enters the house. Understanding of the external world can be increased if help guidance is extended in respect of various important life events like family budget, work situation, physical conditions, involvement in some social situation etc.
If proper guidance is extended in these matters, e. Techniques like logical discussion, questioning, etc. Explanation may not be very effective. Informing or use of bibliography can also be tried along-with other techniques in helping the client to reflect upon various aspects of his current situation. In this procedure we consider the decisions and activities of the client and its effects in interaction with his environment.
Over and again the worker strives to help the client think about the effect of his decisions and actions on others or its consequences for himself, e. In any of these instances, the client tries imaginatively with the help of the caseworker to foresee the consequence of the plan for himself and for the other people whose lives are involved in his decision. The decision should be taken after all possible facts have been gathered and the pros and cons of the alternative decisions have been considered.
To quote Hollis , a mother may not realise that hitting her son compels him to defy her to maintain his prestige before his peers. If possible, avoid explaining the relationship between behaviour and consequences. It is preferable to lead the client to see sequence himself. Many times the client will draw his own correct conclusion once the two aspects of his behaviour are brought to his attention.
This part involves awareness of the so-called hidden feelings or reactions. There are many degree of hiddenness, according to Hollis The client may be perfectly aware of his reactions but afraid to speak of it because he is ashamed of it or fears ridicule or criticism, or has not recognised the significance of his feeling. At times, the client may be truly unaware of his feelings because they are not part of his conscious thoughts.
There are occasions when reading his thoughts is necessary, either because the client, unable to bring out his thoughts into open will feel relieved if the worker does so for him, or, because there is therapeutic justification for bringing them out even though this may make him uncomfortable.
Skill lies in finding Ways of enabling the client to bring out the hidden material himself. Where full awareness is present, this often occurs without any specific prompting as the client becomes more secure with the worker in response to a sustaining approach.
At other times, when the worker is fairly sure of what the client is withholding, he may be able to make comments which refer tangentially to the anticipated content, thus inviting the client to talk about it but still not facing him with it directly, e. Often one can use the procedure of calling the attention of the client to the discrepancies between facts and feelings, to overemphasis, or to inconsistencies or inappropriateness one sees in the feelings.
Sometimes this can be done merely by repeating the revealing statement in a questioning tone. When it is actually advisable to put the matter into words for the client, this can be done tentatively, making it possible for the client to maintain his defenses if he needs to do so. Occasionally, a direct unqualified interpretation is helpful, but for this the worker should be very sure of his ground.
This procedure is designed for those persons who cannot benefit adequately from the earlier procedure because of intrapsychic forces operating behind their patterns tendencies of behaviour. Consideration of patterns of personality and behaviour does not involve probing early life experiences. How the libidinal sex urges and aggressive drives are seeking satisfaction?
Is their satisfaction creating anxiety in client? In cases where the client is vaguely aware of his unrealistic or inappropriate behaviour, the caseworker may point out and draw his attention to it. If required, reality may be demonstrated along-with discussion of the feelings and thoughts involved in the said inappropriate behaviour.
A student who coerces his classmates to leave the class is indulging in ego-dystonic behaviour though he thinks it to be ego-systonic. To help such students clients one has to first help him to realise that his behaviour is, in fact, ego-dystonic, therefore, non-congenial to his proper social functioning.
Unconscious matters revealed through dreams etc. Too much of use of defense mechanisms speaks of poor capacity of ego to tolerate frustrations and consequent anxiety. In such cases, one may first bring these instances to his notice and slowly interpret it in dynamic terms, i. Similarly, he may be helped to recognise his impulsive behaviour to learn to control such behaviours.
Certain clients suffer from excessive guilt because of too strong superego. In such cases too one may first bring the facts to his notice i. Similarly, his unrealistic beliefs about caste, religion, etc. Insight into the current dynamics interplay and interaction of his feelings, responses, behaviour in his current interaction with others leads him to improvement. To develop insight one should try to understand the emotional process, their origin may be dissatisfaction of drives and defense mechanisms used.
Techniques may be clarification and interpretation, confrontation and logical discussion etc. An attempt is also made in this procedure to understand how a behaviour is continuing to exist in-spite of its being counter-productive. Reinforcing factors behind these counter-productive behaviours have to be located and tackled. Positive reinforcement is required to strengthen the newly learnt behaviour. Hollis pleads for use of this procedure only when the earlier procedures fail to yield desirable results i.
These influences block his efforts to change in the required direction. Therefore, it becomes imperative to help the client to see the links between his present personality characteristics and earlier life experiences. Once the client is able to perceive how his earlier life experiences have shaped his certain current behaviour patterns tendencies , he can be helped to review his earlier life experiences if it can be recalled properly and modify his reactions to these earlier experiences.
These dysfunctional characteristics or tendencies to behave in a particular style cannot be overcome unless he develops insight into how these experiences have shaped his present dysfunctional behaviour patterns or tendencies.
This is based on Freudian concepts, according to which childhood experiences have permanent effect on personality functioning. However, it has been now realised that earlier life experiences get modified and the later experiences are as much valuable as the earlier ones.
In this procedure also, positive reinforcers for a particular behaviour pattern are to be located and handled. Earlier misconceptions or distorted generalisations get confirmed or reinforced by later experiences. To quote an example, a girl aged 20 years was unwilling to marry a college teacher because according to her, teachers have poor social life and status. On enquiry, it was revealed by her that this was based on her experience of her father. Her distorted generalisation got reinforced from her experiences of her neighbours also.
It may be mentioned that in such cases, clients perceive what they want to perceive and recognise only those experiences which confirm their ideas.
As opined earlier, no attempt is made to uncover the unconscious or retrace the infantile experiences, except those which can be easily recalled with normal probing. No technique of psycho-analysis to understand unconscious is used. The caseworker may draw the attention of the client to the inconsistencies in his behaviour or examine his past experiences in the light of realities prevailing then.
In the case of a mother who does not allow her university educated girls for marketing, the caseworker can help to link her this behaviour with her own experience of moving along when unmarried. Sometimes this behaviour of mother may be because she learnt from her parents to restrict the movement of unmarried girls. In such a case, the link between her present behaviour and her experience of parental restriction can be established and examined and re-evaluated in terms of the realities existing then to develop insight.
It may be mentioned that before attempting dynamic or genetic developmental understanding, the caseworkers should use sustaining process and ventilation. Interpretations should always be in tentative terms unless one is dead sure of the meaning of the behaviour. Dependence of the client on caseworker for self-understanding should be minimised and he should be encouraged to think more on himself. It is always better to lead the client to think on his own than giving him readymade answers or solutions, in other words, caseworker should work with the client and not for the client.
One may work, in the case of an industrial worker, with the immediate supervisor, labour officer, wife, etc. In the case of a school-going child, one may work with the parents and teachers. While arranging these protective services, the caseworker should assess if these services will be helpful to his social functioning, i. While serving the client, the caseworker can work in the role of a provider, locator, creator, interpreter, mediator and aggressive intervener Hollis, Concepts drawn from various other approaches can be used along-with this approach.
These approaches can be used as supplementary to each other. While working with rural population and tradition-bound families, use of Indian concepts has been found quite useful. In recent years evaluation has assumed a significant place in our service programmes. It has been realised that no service or project can be effective unless we continuously and intermittently evaluate the outcomes of programmes and effectiveness of the methods used to deliver services.
A lot of literature has, in the last decade, emerged on evaluation of welfare services. In social casework practice too, we need to evaluate, at least empirically, the outcome of our efforts. The purpose of evaluation, as a process of casework, is to see if our efforts are yielding any result or not, if the techniques used are serving the purpose, and if the goals are being achieved. This is not done from research point of view, because of which we do not use any rating scale etc.
Like assessment diagnosis , this too is a continuous process. Intermittently, evaluation of the approach and result should be taken up with the client so that the efforts are meaningfully utilised.
These evaluations may tell if the problem needs redefinition, if the objectives are to be reassessed and re-determined, and if the intervention approach and techniques need any change.
This will further strengthen the relationship between the helper and helpees and motivate the client to work towards his goal. At the end, i. Follow-up is done to help the client maintain the improvement. During follow-up, the client is helped to discuss the problems he faces in maintaining the improvement. Work is done with the people significant for his improved social functioning. If required, he is referred to the proper source for needed services and help.
An eclectic approach or choosing the most suitable approach according to the nature of the problem is necessary to achieve the desired result. Though literature available on choice of approach in various types of problems is plenty, experience is the only key to choose the right approach in each case. We have, so far, discussed the nature of casework and casework process.
There are certain situations where knowledge of casework process and human behaviour do not suffice. Such situations in casework practice are crisis, and non-motivated clients who pose challenge to the practitioners. Dealing with such situations requires specialised knowledge and approach. These devices and techniques are usually sufficient to deal with the usual tasks of daily life.
According to Korner , crisis may occur in two ways: exhaustion crisis, i. Another is shock crisis which implies a sudden change in the environment resulting in excessive release of emotions that overwhelm his coping devices and render him incapable of perceiving, cognition and decision-making. Caplan sees a crisis occurring when an individual faces an obstacle to achieving his important life goals, which is for the time being, insurmountable by means of customary methods of problem-solving.
He, like Korner, also sees various types of crisis situations precipitated by changes in the normal course of living such as leaving of home for boarding school by the child, birth of a baby, marrying daughter, unwanted pregnancy, retirement, ageing, rustication etc.
Crises are seen usually as self-limiting and superimposed on normally functioning personalities. Crisis intervention has been the traditional concern of social caseworkers which is clear from the writings of Gordon Hamilton, Bertha C. Traditional approach in casework and crisis intervention has something common as well as something different. Crisis situations involve either threat to the instinctual needs, sense of well-being and autonomy or a challenge to mastery, existence and growth of individual or loss in terms of status, person, capacity, etc.
It causes disequilibrium and disorganisation of self, followed by reorganisation and equilibrium. This period may last between a week to a month or so.
During the reorganisation and reintegration period, ego picks up new adaptive styles and new techniques and becomes richer to tackle similar situations in future. This is usually possible with the help available from experts or experienced persons.
It is recognised that, though anyone can come across with crisis situations, there is a population which is more vulnerable to such situations. Golan has suggested the following steps: formulation and assessment of the present situation, implementation and termination. The caseworker, while assessing, should understand the hazardous event a specific stress producing event , the subjective reaction termed as vulnerable state also of the individual or family to the event, nature of precipitating factors which heighten the tension or worsen the situation for the client, the state of active crisis the subjective condition like psychological and physical turmoil and disturbance of intellectual functioning and of mood, etc.
Attempts should be made to understand the available supportive systems and the capacity of the client to deal with such situations. One may try to initiate new models of perceiving, thinking, feeling and adopting new responses. Though most of the techniques enlisted by Hollis and others are useful in helping the client, provision of protective concrete services and partialisation of the problem, involvement of the supportive social network and catharsis may prove more useful in crisis situations caused by sudden occurrence of hazardous events.
In the termination phase, one can review the tasks completed, new adaptive devices learnt, and the new mode of relating to persons and resources in the community. The caseworker in crisis situation has to be quite active, task-focused and committed to the client cause. He should remind the client about the time limit and the tasks completed after which the client has to move on the lead given by the worker.
Crisis situations in Indian settings are usually taken care of by the social network to which one belongs. People, as we know, are often recognised as groups based either on the lines of caste, religious sects or professions etc.
The person in crisis is usually helped by the people of his own group. It has been observed that Indians by and large are more humane, probably because of their religion-dominated social life.
Though it has been observed and reported that our social ties are weakening, recent increase in exploitation of masses for votes along the caste line seems to have checked this erosion to a considerable extent. Apart from this, communities in general, even in metropolitan towns, help their people in crisis situations.
Such systems, if any existing in the community to handle crisis situations, need to be strengthened. One of the important problems not infrequently faced by social caseworkers in practice is to help a client lacking in motivation or exhibiting resistance to seek help. In such an instance of a hard-to-reach client, the caseworker in the interest of the client and society approaches reaches out the client with his help and services of the agency.
This is seen more often in psychiatric set-up where they resent being hospitalised or examined by psychiatrists. Resistance of this nature is also common with the clients in correctional settings. These clients see their ego- dystonic alien behaviour as ego-syntonic conducive because of which they reject all help to get rid of their non-productive and non-congenial approach to life.
In many situations, some of these techniques may be considered either as unsuitable or undesirable. In such cases, motivating the client to utilise the services offered becomes very important. Motivation or motive refers to the desire or emotion that moves one to act. Motives are the goals or objectives which we choose to pursue for our welfare and happiness.
This impels us to act accordingly. These impelling forces may be either negative or positive. The positive ones are wants, needs, desires, etc. These needs or wants develop, according to Maslow in a sequence, i. Goals are different from wants. Goals are selected by individuals depending on their cultural norms and values, physical capacity, personal experience, availability opportunities and resources.
Wants and goals go on changing and developing which along-with fears and aversion initiate and sustain behaviour of an individual. These wants and fears are subsumed under the term motive or need. Swanson and Woolson tested their assumptions selectively quoted below about unmotivated clients. This can be discerned only when we note down his successes, satisfactions, failures, traumas, pains and the rewards he values more and his kinds of efforts to solve problems etc.
They have, after their long experience of work and research, proposed that motivation is likely to increase:. These goals should pertain to both the achievement of a new level of behaviour and of a new level of feeling by the patient;. This, of course, includes helping him set up a series of steps to be taken in a sequence.
Also, it is often useful to help him distinguish between what he wants for his own comfort and survival as against what his family or intimate groups or community want from him;. Review of his past satisfactions and successes helps caseworker formulate goals which have been within the reach of a person with his assets at one time, and presumably may be possible for him to achieve again. There is evidence that psychiatric patients need more help other people in setting for themselves goals that are neither too high nor too low Heckhausen, These need to be encouraged and rewarded;.
Types of questions that might be used in attempting to help a patient understand his own unconscious goals and sources of motivation are being quoted below. These questions, according to Swanson and Woolson , should not be used in direct, quick sequence but should be used gradually over a period of days after enough trust and rapport had been developed:.
Will you describe these times to me and focus on your memories of some of them? What elements do you think have contributed to making these periods the most happy ones? How were these periods different from now? List several. What is your job? How do you feel about it?
What are the particular rewards and satisfactions of your kind of work? What are the particular disadvantages of this job? How do you feel about your employer, your immediate supervisor, if any? How do you feel about the attitude of your company or organisation towards you? The union? What obstacles have prevented these changes? Which of these could you change? How secure is your job?
Are you carrying more than on job? What do you enjoy most about your children? What problems do you have with any of your children? What changes would you like to see in any of them? Do you want your children lives to be different than yours? In what ways? This is often the most productive question in uncovering repressed goals if patient is in a reflective mood and taking his time to answer. What do you like least about your father and mother?
Also, the main bad points? What are your own good points in relation to your marriage? Also, bad points? Let your imagination go freely. In such an imaginary picture, how would you feel most of the time? In what way is that different from the way you feel now? What work would you be doing? Where would you live? How would your living conditions be different than they are now? How would your marriage be different?
Describe exactly how you would make each of these choices? What changes would you like to see most in yourself? And also in your way of living? In what ways would you like to change while you are in the hospital? Can you describe what kind of person you would like to be when you get out of the hospital press for concrete details.
If the answer is vague, i. One may use examples from among patients on the ward, whom the client patient knows, in order to illustrate this, i. X getting well means being able to stop losing his temper and shouting at his children, for Mr. Y, it means feeling a lot more cheerful and active most of the time, and for Mr. One needs to encourage patient to describe with as much concrete details as possible. We have talked your goals. What do you think now are the goals of some of the other people who are most affected by your behaviour, e.
How do their goals fit in with yours? Are there some points at which their goals conflict with yours? Should we think about working out these conflicts between your goals and theirs? Think quietly about yourself and your feelings over the past few years. At what times have your feelings been most pleasant, and satisfying? Can you describe what these feelings were like? What caused them? Think quietly about your own feelings for the last few years.
Try to describe very accurately the most unpleasant feelings you have had during that period. What caused these feelings?
What feelings would you like most to replace them? What steps might be taken to make this replacement? About what, have you felt most fear or anxiety during these periods?
Specify it in the several years, and in the recent weeks. Have you outgrown the need for it? With what feelings would you like to replace it? What could be done towards making this replacement? What things have made you most angry during the last few years? Was this a pleasant or unpleasant feeling to you? To what degree? Have you ever really solved the problem that made you so angry or does it continue to recur? What steps might be taken to solve it instead of enduring its recurrence?
How did you behave when you were angry? Can you think of any other behaviour that might have been more effective or preferable? Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.
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