Benefit levels for the Food Stamp program were raised and eligibility requirements were relaxed, EITC amounts were increased for large families, additional funds were provided for the TANF program, amounts for the CTC were increased, income and payroll tax rates were temporarily reduced for low-income families, and one-time extra benefits were given to Social Security retirement and SSI recipients.
An additional major legislative change involved the Unemployment Insurance UI program, where the potential duration of benefits was increased, benefit levels were raised, and states were encouraged to broaden the bases for eligibility. For present purposes, the question is whether these additional benefits were provided in equal or unequal measures to different family types and to those of different income levels, and whether therefore the redistributional trends noted in the last section were continued or countered.
Interestingly, the evidence on this question indicates that, contrary to the long-term trend, the additional benefits provided went to both single parent and married parent families, childless individuals and families as well as those with children, and were about equally spread among those in deep poverty and those with higher income levels Moffitt, The poorest families received major increases from the Food Stamp and UI programs, while millions of families who lost their jobs but still had significant earnings e.
Nevertheless, at this writing, most of these temporary expansions have phased out. Aside from these, however, the safety net will return to its pre-Recession structure. Consequently, for the safety net as a whole, there is no indication that the long-run trend of reduction in support for single mothers and for the poorest families and increases in support for married parent families and better-off working families will be reversed.
Finally, a traditional issue with examining how safety net programs affect low-income families is whether those programs discourage work and hence increase the proportion of families with very low or zero earnings, and whether those programs encourage the formation of single-parent families.
The research evidence to date suggests that these issues are of little or no importance for the purposes of this paper for several reasons. First, the existing evidence shows that neither work disincentives nor family structure incentives are large in magnitude, especially in the aggregate. As for family structure incentives, a large body of research on this question for the AFDC program failed to show any major effects on the fraction of single mother families, although the evidence suggests that there may have been a small effect Moffitt, Research on the effects of the reform of the program on family structure also has shown very mixed results and no evidence of any major effect Grogger and Karoly, Second, however, the calculations in the previous section were of average benefits conditional on level of earnings and conditional on family structure, and hence any effect of the program on changing the proportions of families at different earnings levels or in different demographic groups should not, at least at the simplest level, affect the level of transfers conditional on belong to one of those earnings or family type groups.
If anything, work incentives should have increased. The decline in benefits for single mother families and the increase in benefits for married parent families should, likewise, have provided even fewer incentives for single motherhood and greater incentives for marriage over time.
While I am not a professional political scientist or even sociologist, I nevertheless suggest that one explanation for the changing distribution of transfer benefits I have uncovered can be traced to long-standing concepts of what is called the deserving poor.
I am far from the first to note that the U. In the eyes of the American voter, those who are deserving are those who work, who are married or at least widowed, and who have children.
Those who are undeserving are those who do not work, who are single parents, and who do not have children. In colonial America, the elderly and children were also seen as more deserving than prime-age adults Iceland, , p.
Interestingly, the research literature just referred to also reveals that, historically, simply receiving government assistance has been taken itself as a sign of undeservingness, a signal that the individual has not been exerting enough effort on his or her own. Another interesting parallel to current economic developments is that in certain historical periods, like the early 19th century, many prime-age unemployed men were unable to find jobs because of rapid technological change such as the mechanization of agriculture Iceland, , p.
Today, the emergence of skill-biased technological change, with its increasing demand for workers with high skill levels and decreasing demand for workers with low levels of skills and education, is a leading explanation for the decline in earnings among the most disadvantaged and rise in their unemployment levels. As occurred in colonial times, when unemployed men were treated as lacking effort, low-skill men without jobs today are often similar regarded as being at fault for their lack of employment.
While these distinctions have been made for a long period of time, they have grown sharper over the last 20 or 30 years in the U. The emphasis on work in welfare programs has grown as work requirements have been added to various programs and as some of the major expansions in welfare programs have only been directed to help those with earnings.
For women, it is often argued--as by Garfinkel and McLanahan in their landmark volume on single mothers, for example--that this change in attitudes has its source in the rise in employment among middle-class and higher-educated women, leading to a greater expectation that all women today should work, even if they have young children and even if their job opportunities and skill levels are low Garfinkel and McLanahan, The growing negative attitudes toward the AFDC program which contributed to the reform were in part a reflection of the changing nature of its caseload, from one composed primarily of widows to one composed primarily of never-married mothers.
In , 59 percent of AFDC adult recipients were widows or widowers or were married to spouses with disabilities, but by , 58 percent of the caseload consisted of the much less popular group of unmarried mothers.
As for families with older adults, the impact of government transfer programs, especially the Social Security retirement program, is well known see Kathleen McGarry for a recent contribution. Also, the PAA Presidential Address by Preston noted the increase in government support of the elderly relative to that of children. Preston gave a number of explanations for this trend rooted in the political process.
I would only add to his account that the disabled have been similarly favored, and that includes disabled children as well as adults Christopher Jencks also adds the disabled to the elderly as a favored group. To economists, the distinction between more and less deserving families is at odds with their classic models of how welfare should be delivered, as formulated by Milton Friedman in his proposal for welfare reform in the United States.
Friedman argued forcefully that families should be given assistance entirely and solely on the basis of their level of income, and possibly family size, but nothing else. No family or personal characteristics should be used for eligibility or benefit levels, and families with the same level of income should be treated identically. He decried government programs in the U. Friedman thought that making distinctions on the basis of characteristics other than income would lead to support reflecting political lobbying and would harm the economy.
It is important to note that addressing the trends noted above with new policies should not be pursued by reducing support for families with older adults, those with disabilities, or those with significant levels of earnings in the low-income population.
Those families in these groups deserve support and, particularly for the last group, the long-term trend in providing additional assistance for disadvantaged individuals to work more through additional child care, additional education and training, and earnings subsidies like the EITC is a welcome development.
Nor is the solution to the problem a return to a welfare system with completely open-ended transfers available to those who do not work with no questions asked, although the U. However, the decline in support for the poorest families and for single-mother families is not likely to improve the prospects for their improvement and is, if anything, likely to achieve the opposite. Families in the poorest and most disadvantaged sections of the population face many barriers to work, including low levels of education and literacy, learning disabilities, physical and mental health issues, domestic violence, substance abuse, and criminal histories Loprest, The decline of support to families with nonemployed members and to single parents is presumably rooted in the presumption that they have not taken personal responsibility for their own situation.
Along with Jencks , Garfinkel and McLanahan , and many others, we should not dispute the societal norm in favor of work and marriage which gives it such primacy. It is part of the American heritage and has had enormous positive effects on our society. But more needs to be done for those facing the largest obstacles to work, whether it be training programs, more discriminating work requirements, better child care for working mothers, or other forms of employment assistance.
And, most importantly, even if their employment and earnings cannot rise to the levels we and they would desire, new ways to assist those families who are making an effort but are not succeeding should be developed for assistance in the short-term and even in the medium term. As for research, there several areas where more investigation would be worthwhile. The crude demographic categories used in the classifications here miss the important developments in the American family requiring distinctions between never-married and divorced and widowed mothers and children, cohabiting unions, stepparent families, and blended families with children from multiple partners as well as absent fathers.
How those more detailed family types have fared under trends in the safety net would be of interest. On a related topic, the calculations here do not account for the variability and instability of government support in response to instability of family types themselves, which requires a more dynamic examination of changes in family structure and corresponding changes or lack of changes in government support.
The consequences of decreasing government support for children in the poorest families would also be of interest to investigate, and would tie in with the large and growing literature on the determinants of child development and the consequences for intergenerational mobility and intergenerational transmission of poverty.
These and other research topics would contribute to the knowledge base we need for the public policy discussion of these issues. Nadia Diamond-Smith and Gwyn Pauley provided excellent research assistance. Financial support from the Russell Sage Foundation is also gratefully acknowledged. The one important set of programs that is left out for lack of good data are child care programs. These figures deflate spending by a general price index and hence overstates the growth of real medical care utilization.
Families with children are those with children under 18 in the household. In , the percent of families in the four groups out of those with private income less than percent of the poverty threshold from lowest to highest, were 53, 16, 16, and 14, and they had changed to 41, 22, 21, and 16 by National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Author manuscript; available in PMC Jun 1.
Robert A. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Moffitt, Johns Hopkins University;. Copyright notice. The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at Demography.
See other articles in PMC that cite the published article. Abstract Contrary to the popular view that the U. Keywords: Welfare, Poverty, Single Mothers. A Short Chronology of the Development of U. Welfare in the United States commonly refers to the federal government welfare programs that have been put in place to assist the unemployed or underemployed.
Welfare is a fluid topic that cannot be discussed without first understanding the history of poverty in the United States. Many welfare programs are tied directly to the poverty line, which is defined federally on an annual basis. The poverty line is dependent on the members in a household. Here is a chart of the poverty line, defined annually for a family of four from as a reference point.
The history of welfare in the U. These laws made a distinction between those who were unable to work due to their age or physical health and those who were able-bodied but unemployed. The former group was assisted with cash or alternative forms of help from the government.
The latter group was given public service employment in workhouses. Throughout the 's welfare history continued when there were attempts to reform how the government dealt with the poor. Some changes tried to help the poor move to work rather than continuing to need assistance. Locally organized policy-making bodies 4. Government 5. Religious 6.
Private C. Policy formulation, implementation, and improvement: interrelated processes; competencies and skills needed for effective participation D. Ways in which society organizes to handle welfare programs to respond to different kinds of problems 1. Passage of legislation which led to the establishment of public agencies like the DSWD, and the forming of voluntary organizations to respond to specific community problems E.
Ways and measures by which policies are translated into programs and services; the process of creating necessary structures; the administration of these programs and services F.
Assessing and evaluating effectiveness as well as deficiencies or inadequacies of programs and services in meeting needs and problems. The broad field of social welfare and its various instrumentalities 1. Social services in education, health, housing, manpower development, community development, population and family planning, labor, etc.
Fields and Settings for SW practice 1. Traditional fields a. Child and family welfare b. Medical setting c. Corrections d. Public assistance e. Subsection 2 2 of the Ontario Drug Benefit Act is repealed and the following substituted: Persons deemed eligible persons.
Reciprocal Enforcement of Support Orders Act. Section 10 of the Reciprocal Enforcement of Support Orders Act is repealed and the following substituted: Social assistance agency as claimant. Regional Municipality of Sudbury Act. Succession Law Reform Act. Bill , Social Assistance Reform Act, View bill Status. Versions As Amended by Standing Committee. Enactment of other schedules 3. Schedules C, D and E are hereby enacted.
Repeals 4. Same 4 The following provisions of the Ministry of Community and Social Services Act are repealed on a day to be named by proclamation of the Lieutenant Governor: 1. Same 5 Any proclamation relating to the repeal of the Family Benefits Act , the General Welfare Assistance Act or the Vocational Rehabilitation Services Act may apply to the whole or any section or subsection of the Act, and proclamations may be issued at different times with respect to any section or subsection of the Act.
Commencement 5. Short title 6. The purpose of this Act is to establish a program that, a recognizes individual responsibility and promotes self reliance through employment; b provides temporary financial assistance to those most in need while they satisfy obligations to become and stay employed; c effectively serves people needing assistance; and d is accountable to the taxpayers of Ontario.
Definitions 2. Employment assistance 4. Employment assistance is assistance to help a person to become and stay employed and includes, a community participation; and b other employment measures, as prescribed. Basic financial assistance 5. Basic financial assistance includes, a income assistance provided for purposes of basic needs and shelter; b benefits; and c emergency assistance.
Who receives employment assistance 6. Employment assistance may be provided for, a a recipient or a dependant; b a person eligible to receive income support under the Ontario Disability Support Program Act, or a dependant; and c members of a prescribed class of persons. Who receives income assistance 7. Who are the beneficiaries 2 Income assistance shall be provided for the benefit of the eligible person and his or her dependants. Eligibility for income assistance 3 No person is eligible for income assistance unless, a the person is resident in Ontario; b the budgetary requirements of the person and any dependants exceed their income and their assets do not exceed the prescribed limits, as provided for in the regulations; c the person and the prescribed dependants provide the information and the verification of information required to determine eligibility including, i personal identification information, as prescribed, ii financial information, as prescribed, and iii any other prescribed information; and d the person and the person's dependants meet any other prescribed conditions relating to eligibility.
Same 4 A recipient and any prescribed dependants may be required as a condition of eligibility for basic financial assistance to, a satisfy community participation requirements; b participate in employment measures; c accept and undertake basic education and job specific skills training; and d accept and maintain employment.
Who receives benefits 8. Benefits may be provided for, a a recipient or a dependant; b a person eligible to receive income support under the Ontario Disability Support Program Act, or a dependant; and c members of the prescribed classes of persons. Who receives emergency assistance 9.
Temporary care assistance Assistance in exceptional circumstances Lien on property Agreement to reimburse and assignment Same 2 An agreement under subsection 1 may require an assignment, as prescribed.
Same 3 This section does not apply to, a a payment that would be exempt as income or assets under this Act or the regulations; or b that portion of employment earnings, pension income or other prescribed income that is paid with respect to a period after the period during which the person receives assistance.
Refuse to grant assistance. Declare the person ineligible for assistance for the prescribed period. Re-instatement 2 If assistance is suspended, reduced or cancelled under this section, it shall be returned to its former level or re-instated only in accordance with the regulations. Application for basic financial assistance Same 2 Despite any decision of an administrator, the Tribunal or a court, a further application for assistance may be made by an applicant or recipient upon new or other evidence or if material circumstances have changed.
Determination of basic financial assistance Determination of employment assistance 2 The amount and type of employment assistance provided and the time and manner of providing that assistance shall be determined in accordance with the regulations. Same 2 An administrator shall appoint a person to act for a recipient who is under the age of 18 years if there is no guardian of property or trustee for the recipient. Same 3 An administrator may provide assistance for the benefit of a recipient to the recipient's guardian of property or trustee or to a person appointed under subsection 1 or 2.
Compensation 4 A person to whom assistance is provided under subsection 3 is not entitled to a fee or other compensation or reward or to reimbursement for costs or expenses incurred by acting under this section, except as prescribed. Report and account 5 A person appointed under this section to act for a recipient shall report and account in accordance with the regulations.
Recovery of overpayments Same 2 If a recipient or a dependant fails to honour an assignment or an agreement to reimburse the delivery agent, the prescribed amount is an overpayment. Methods of recovery 4 An overpayment may be recovered by one or more of reduction of basic financial assistance under section 20, notice under section 21 or a proceeding under section Reduction of basic financial assistance Same 2 The amount deducted under subsection 1 shall not exceed the prescribed amount unless the recipient agrees to a greater amount being deducted.
Notice of overpayment Effect of notice 2 A decision determining that an overpayment exists shall be final and enforceable against the recipient as if it were an order of the Ontario Court General Division if, a notice of it has been given under subsection 1 ; b the time for commencing an appeal to the Tribunal has expired; and c no appeal has been commenced.
Effect of appeal 3 If the decision is appealed and an overpayment is determined, the decision of the Tribunal shall be final and enforceable against the recipient as if it were an order of the Ontario Court General Division.
Notice to spouse 4 If a recipient had a dependent spouse when an overpayment was incurred, the administrator may give notice in writing to the spouse respecting the overpayment. Effect of notice to spouse 5 If the administrator provides notice to a spouse under subsection 4 , subsections 2 and 3 apply with necessary modifications to the spouse. Proceeding for recovery of overpayment Maximum amount deducted 3 The total amount deducted from basic financial assistance under subsection 2 shall not exceed the prescribed amount unless the recipient agrees to a greater amount.
Payment of amount deducted 4 The administrator shall pay any amount deducted under this section to the prescribed person. Application of section 5 This section applies even if the amount has been paid into the person's account at a financial institution. When decision takes effect When decision is final 2 An administrator's decision that may not be appealed is final when it is made.
Same 3 An administrator's decision that may be appealed is final, a when the prescribed time for requesting an internal review expires, if no internal review is requested within that time; or b on the earlier of the day the prescribed time for completing the internal review expires and the day the internal review is completed, if an internal review has been requested. Decisions which may be appealed Exceptions 2 No appeal lies to the Tribunal with respect to the following matters: 1.
A decision respecting discretionary benefits. A decision to provide a portion of basic financial assistance directly to a third party. A decision respecting emergency assistance. A prescribed decision. Internal review before appeal Same 2 The request for internal review must be made within the prescribed time. If review requested 3 If the applicant or recipient requests an internal review, the review shall be completed in the prescribed manner and within the prescribed period.
Appeal to Tribunal Same 2 The Tribunal may extend the time for appealing a decision if it is satisfied that there are apparent grounds for an appeal and that there are reasonable grounds for applying for the extension. Same 3 An appeal to the Tribunal shall be commenced and conducted in accordance with the regulations. Parties 4 The administrator, the applicant or recipient who requested the hearing and any other persons specified by the Tribunal are parties to the proceedings before the Tribunal.
Add party 5 At any stage of an appeal, the Tribunal shall add the Director as a party, on his or her request. Notice to spouse 6 If an appeal relates to a determination of an overpayment of which the administrator has given notice to a spouse under subsection 21 4 , the spouse shall be added as a party. Same 7 A spouse who has been added as a party to the appeal of a determination may not commence an appeal in relation to that determination. Submission 8 The administrator and the Director may make written submissions in place of or in addition to appearing at a hearing.
Same 9 If written submissions are to be made, the parties to the hearing shall be given an opportunity before the hearing to examine the submissions, as prescribed. Written or documentary evidence 10 The parties to a hearing shall be given an opportunity before the hearing to examine any written or documentary evidence that a party proposes to introduce at the hearing, as prescribed.
Onus 11 The onus lies on the appellant to satisfy the Tribunal that the decision of the administrator is wrong. Notice to Director Interim assistance Same 2 An applicant or recipient may receive interim assistance directed under subsection 1 only so long as he or she meets all conditions of eligibility for assistance other than a condition relating to the issue under appeal.
Procedure 3 The Statutory Powers Procedure Act does not apply to proceedings of the Tribunal with respect to interim assistance.
Order of Tribunal Order takes effect 3 A decision of the Tribunal takes effect when it is made and, if it is appealed, continues in effect until a decision of the Divisional Court is made on appeal.
Recovery of interim assistance Appeal frivolous, vexatious Appeal denied Limitation on subsequent appeal 2 If an appeal is denied under subsection 1 , the appellant may not appeal a subsequent decision on the same issue during the prescribed period.
If no appeal commenced Appeal to Court Record to be filed in court 2 If a party appeals from a decision of the Tribunal, the Tribunal shall forthwith file with the Divisional Court the prescribed documents, which shall constitute the record in the appeal.
Notice to Director 3 The person appealing shall serve the notice of appeal on the Director and any other party before the Tribunal. Minister entitled to be heard 4 The Minister is entitled to be heard by counsel or otherwise on an appeal under this section. Powers of Court on appeal 5 In an appeal to the Court of a decision of the Tribunal, the Court may, a deny the appeal; b grant the appeal; c grant the appeal in part; or d refer the matter back to the Tribunal or the administrator for reconsideration in accordance with any directions the Court considers proper.
Same 6 The Tribunal or the administrator shall give effect to any direction given by the Court under this section. Revoke designation 3 The Minister may revoke a designation under this section. Powers and duties of delivery agent Standard of services 2 A delivery agent shall meet the prescribed standards in its performance of its functions and follow the prescribed procedures and practices. Additional powers of delivery agent 3 A delivery agent shall have the prescribed powers.
Provision of information related to Act Same 2 The information shall be provided in the form and manner requested by the Director. Use of information related to Act Use of personal information 2 Personal information collected by a delivery agent for the purposes of this Act may be used by the delivery agent and by the Minister only for the purpose for which it was collected or for a consistent purpose or as authorized under this Act.
Record keeping Administrator appointed Powers and duties of administrator Each administrator shall carry out the following duties: 1. Determine the eligibility of each applicant for basic financial assistance.
Determine eligibility for employment assistance and direct its provision. Carry out the prescribed duties. Contracting authority, delivery agent Delegation of administrator's powers and duties Same 2 A decision made by a person exercising the administrator's powers or duties under this section shall be deemed to be a decision of the administrator.
Director Acting Director 2 If the Director is absent or unable to act or the office of the Director is vacant, the employee of the Ministry designated by the Minister has and shall exercise the powers and duties of the Director.
Delegation of Director's powers and duties 3 The Director may, in writing, authorize a person or class of persons to exercise any of the powers or duties of the Director under his or her supervision and direction.
Decision of acting Director 4 A decision made by a person exercising the Director's powers or duties under subsection 3 shall be deemed to be a decision of the Director. Director's powers and duties Contracting authority, Director 2 The Director may enter into an agreement with regard to any matter relating to the administration of this Act or the provision of assistance. Agreement for delivery of assistance Terms and conditions 2 An agreement under this section shall be subject to the prescribed terms and conditions and to any additional terms and conditions set out in it.
Payment of costs 3 An agreement under this section shall provide for the payment by Ontario of a portion of the band's or person's costs, as prescribed. Personal information 4 An agreement under this section shall provide for the ownership, collection, use, disclosure and safeguarding of privacy of personal information and for a person's access to his or her own personal information, subject to the prescribed conditions. Administrator 5 The agreement shall provide for the appointment of an administrator.
Deemed reference 6 If there is an agreement under this section, a reference to a delivery agent in this Act or the regulations shall be deemed to be a reference to the band or person and a reference to an administrator in this Act or the regulations shall be deemed to be a reference to the administrator appointed by the band or person.
Director to supervise 7 If there is an agreement under this section, the Director shall, a supervise the band's or person's administration of the Act and of the provision of assistance and shall audit its costs in administering this Act and providing assistance; b ensure that the appropriate payments are made to the band or person or withheld from it, as the case may be, in accordance with this Act and the regulations; and c supervise compliance with any requirements regarding the collection, use, disclosure and safeguarding of the privacy of personal information.
Ministry as delivery agent Administrator 2 The Minister shall appoint an administrator in a geographic area in which the Ministry is the delivery agent. Cost sharing Payments to delivery agents Payments to bands, persons 2 Despite subsection 1 , the Minister shall pay to every band or person that enters into an agreement under section 49 an amount determined under the agreement.
Apportionment Apportionment of Ontario's costs 2 The Director shall apportion the municipal share of the costs incurred by the Ministry under this Act in accordance with the regulations. Payment by municipalities Same, for Ontario's costs 3 Each municipality shall pay to Ontario the amounts required to be provided by it under this Act with respect to the municipal share of the costs incurred by the Ministry under this Act.
Penalty 4 The delivery agent or Ontario, as the case may be, may charge a municipality the prescribed interest and penalty for non-payment of amounts payable under this section.
Ontario to collect money from territory without municipal organization Deduction of amounts owed Same 2 The Minister shall deduct an amount under this section in accordance with the regulations. Interest and penalty 4 The Minister may charge a delivery agent the prescribed interest and penalty if the delivery agent does not pay to Ontario an amount required to be paid under this Act.
Fraud control unit Local fraud control unit 2 Each delivery agent may establish a local fraud control unit. Mandate 3 A fraud control unit established under subsections 1 or 2 may investigate eligibility of present and past applicants and recipients, including possible violations of this Act, the Ontario Disability Support Program Act, , the Family Benefits Act, the General Welfare Assistance Act and the Vocational Rehabilitation Services Act.
Law enforcement 4 Persons engaged in investigations for the purposes of this section or section 58 shall be deemed to be engaged in law enforcement for the purposes of the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act and the Municipal Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act.
Eligibility review officers Same 2 An eligibility review officer may investigate a person's past or present eligibility for payments under this Act, the Ontario Disability Support Program Act, , the General Welfare Assistance Act , the Family Benefits Act and the Vocational Rehabilitation Services Act and for that purpose has the prescribed powers including the authority to apply for and act under a search warrant.
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